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The American Revolution Military Campaigns,1776-1781 Teaching American History
Wenatchee, WA
British Strategy as of 1776
The battles of Boston led the British to realize that they were up against something far more than mob violence. They thus decided to isolate the New England colonies (especially Massachusetts) and hoped to draw Washington into a decisive – war ending – battle. Boston, the British believed, was the center of the insurgency and need to be isolated and punished. But it was not the proper center for battle. Furthermore, the ports of New England, they believed, could be held with British ships and the Middle Colonies were said to have a greater number of Loyalists who would join in the fighting against the rebels. They therefore sailed into New York (where ostensibly the population was more sympathetic) with 30,000 troops (including both British regulars and Hessians) and the goal of pushing North until Boston was cut off and Washington was forced to engage the British.
The New York Campaign: Howe Lands
Howe arrives in New York in late June 1776 – days before Continental Congress passes Richard Henry Lee’s resolution declaring American independence and the Declaration of Independence is ratified. Howe brings a massive army and navy at New York Harbor. British forces include 30 ships, 1200 cannons, 30,000 soldiers, 10,000 sailors, and 300 supply ships. 8000 of the soldiers are Hessians. The Americans deeply resent the use of foreign troops who are known to be ruthless. This invasion is supported by a British fleet commanded by William Howe’s brother, Richard Howe (“Black Dick” Howe). One colonist remarks “It looks like all London has floated here.” This is the largest expeditionary force that the British army employed during the 18th century.
Eighteenth Century “Shock and Awe”
At one point, Howe engaged in a demonstration of British naval power by sailing two of his Frigates – the Phoenix and the Rose – down the Hudson furiously firing their cannons. He then asks for a meeting with Washington under flag of truce and sends his adjutant general to explain that he has the possibility of negotiating and offering pardons. Washington refuses.
Washington moves to met the British at New York
New York is not easily defended. It is an island and the Americans do not have a navy. Nevertheless, Congress believed that it could not be given up without a fight and Washington agreed. He thus quickly moved 23,000 troops into New York City to defend the city and divided them between Long Island and Manhattan. Washington is often criticized for dividing his troops in the face of an opponent with a greater number of troops.
Battle of Long Island (Sometimes Called the Battle of Brooklyn)
On August 27, 1776, the British and Americans engaged on the tip of Long Island at what is now Brooklyn. This becomes the battle of the American Revolution that has the largest number of troops involved. The Americans initially held the high ground, but the British circle behind them using the (unguarded) Jamaica Pass. Once encircled, the Americans fled and were slaughtered in large numbers. They retreated to Brooklyn Heights and were trapped against the East River. Washington and almost the entire Continental army faced capture and defeat. This was one of the most crucial moments in the war. The British expected Washington to surrender. This was what a European general would have been expected to do. But at night in the fog, Washington evacuated his troops to Manhattan by rowboat.
Battle of Harlem Heights
September, 16, 1776 – The British then pursued Washington and his troops into Manhattan. Washington withdrew to Harlem Heights and British and American troops fought a non-decisive battle there on September 16th.
Battle of White Plains and Capture of Fort Washington and Fort Lee
A month later, Howe then attempted to encircle Washington again. Washington retreated but encountered the British at White Plains on October 28th. Howe did not pursue Washington further, but rather returned to Manhattan and took Fort Washington and Fort Lee. Fort Washington had been built to prevent the British from simply sailing unimpeded up the Hudson. Americans also had a large cache of military stores at Fort Washington, including 100 cannons and 1000s of muskets. Since these are manufactured in Britain, they could be replaced.
Howe is often criticized for not pursuing Washington. Many military strategists believe that he could have brought the war to an end. But Howe did capture Long Island and Manhattan and killed or captured over 5000 Americans. He also captured many of their supplies. As Americans retreated, the city was burned (possibly by Americans trying to prevent the British from making use of the resources in the city).
New York City as a Prison
The British held New York City and the surrounding area for the entire war. New York City became a large prison for captured American troops many of whom were put onto prison ships. Over 12,000 Americans died in these prisons during the war, more than died on the battlefield.
Washington retreats (Winter, 1776)
Washington and his troops retreated across New Jersey, the Delaware River, and eventually into Pennsylvania. After Washington’s defeats in New York in 1776, there was open talk in the American army of replacing him. It is at this time (December, 1776) that Thomas Paine, who was with Washington’s army during the retreat from New York, wrote in The American Crisis: “THESE are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands by it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us, that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph. What we obtain too cheap, we esteem too lightly: it is dearness only that gives every thing its value. Heaven knows how to put a proper price upon its goods; and it would be strange indeed if so celestial an article as FREEDOM should not be highly rated.” This work was originally written on a drum head. Washington ordered that it be read to his troops.
British Give Chase into New Jersey (1776)
Howe deploys brigade garrisons into six New Jersey towns and these garrisons are joined by Loyalist militias who engage in a series of local battles with rebels. Cornwallis also pursues Washington until he moves into Pennsylvania.
Howe extends an offer of pardon to rebels that is acceptedby at least 3,000 Americans, including one signer of the Declaration of Independence.
Washington’s Brilliant (Desperate) Gamble: Victory at Trenton and Princeton
The enlistments of over half of the troops that Washington commanded were nearly up. His generals were bickering among themselves. Charles Lee wanted to fight a guerilla war, but Washington and his core of officers wanted to fight a European style conflict. In the face of these difficulties and as the British went into winter quarters, Washington engaged in a surprise counterattack on December 25-26, 1776 at Trenton. Famously crossing (re-crossing) the Delaware on December 25th, 1776, Washington captured over 1200 Hessians at the Battle of Trenton. A week later on January 3rd, 1777, Cornwallis and his troops moved to retake Trenton, but Washington successfully attacked the reguard of Cornwallis’ troops at Princeton, New Jersey. Washington’s victories at Trenton and Princeton were of limited strategic value, but they boosted the morale of the army. Washington and his soldiers then went into winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey.
Washington Crossing the Delaware (Emanuel Leutze,1851)
British Strategy of 1777 (The Hudson River Corridor Strategy)
At some point in 1776, the British decide to combine victory in New York with capture of the Hudson River Corridor to trap Washington and his army in New York and force his surrender. To prevent the colonists from escaping to the North, the British employ a force of 8,000 under the leadership of General John Burgoyne southward from Canada to seize Lake Champlain and the Hudson river corridor. Burgoyne’s forces were then to meet up with Generals Howe and St. Leger who were advancing north from New York and East from the Mohawk Valley respectively. The goal was to isolate New England from the rest of the colonies.
1777 (Burgoyne advances and the British recapture Fort Ticonderoga)
Burgoyne took off in June, 1777. He retook Fort Ticonderoga in July, 1777 by a remarkable feat of military engineering. He was able to fortify Mt. Defiance overlooking the fort. Americans abandoned the fort when they see these fortifications above them.
Burgoyne continues South
After capturing Fort Ticonderoga, Burgoyne then continued on his journey south to Albany, New York. Americans followed Burgoyne’s army of 8000 troops (including several thousand Native Americans), disrupting and severely slowing his movement. His supply lines were stretched and he was continuously harassed by militia from New England who blocked his path, destroyed bridges, and generally slowed his progress. Famously, his retinue included 30 carts of Burgoyne’s personal possessions with several cases of champagne that had to be dragged through the thick Northeastern forests. Burgoyne’s army built 40 bridges as they worked their way through the forest. The final twenty three miles of this journey could be achieved only at a pace of about a mile a day. At one point, Burgoyne sent 1000 troops on a mission to seize supplies but they were defeated and captured by American militia.
American Victory at Saratoga
Meanwhile, on September 13-14, Burgoyne crossed the Hudson, cutting off his supply lines and communications with his troops who followed. He then reached Saratoga in early October, 1777, only to be met at Freeman’s Farm by 10,000 to 11,000 Americans of the northern militia led by Horatio Gates who has been appointed by Congress and supported by Daniel Morgan and his riflemen. Morgan’s riflemen hide high in the trees and target British officers (in direct violation of 18th century military practice) Howe was not available to lend support. Historians still debate about what each expected from the other.
American and British troops engaged in two bloody battles at Saratoga. Eventually, Burgoyne surrendered over 7000 British troops to Horatio Gates and General Benedict Arnold. Arnold is the field general of American forces and the real hero of Saratoga. At the surrender, Burgoyne gave his sword to Gates and remarked: “The fortune of war, General Gates, has made me your prisoner.” Gates returned the sword and said, “I shall always be ready to bear testimony that it has not been through any fault of your Excellency.”
General John Burgoyne surrenders to Horatio Gates
Saratoga (The Turning Point)
Saratoga led the French, who had been looking for signs of American strength, to formally enter the war. France had been secretly aiding the American Revolutionaries with money and arms, but now in February, 1788, they signed a military alliance with the United States. For Britain, the entrance of the French leads to the expansion of the colonial conflict into a world war in which the American Revolution is but a sideshow. Eventually, the French engage the English in battle in English colonies in India, South America, off the coast of South Africa, and in the Caribbean and there was talk that they will even invade England. French forces in the colonies also made British victories there much more difficult. The British no longer had uncontested control of the waterways and ports. They also faced more hardened and trained French forces, including experienced Generals.
Saratoga represents the end of the threat posed to New England by the Hudson River Corridor strategy. The British hold New York and recapture Canada, but do not control New England.
Saratoga also represents a tremendous psychic victory for the Americans and conversely a shattering blow to British prestige. Seven thousand British troops surrender to the Americans. That would have been unimagined to most of the world in 1775.
Victory at Saratoga (The Turning Point)
Led to a change in command: Sir Henry Clinton replaced General Howe.
Led to a change in theater and tactics: the British switched to the South and used new tactics, including buying off American leaders, the use of more ruthless tactics including bombardment of American ports, and a policy of pacification. The British now abandoned Philadelphia and relocated their troops to the West Indies. They then aimed to secure Southern ports and with the use of Loyalists and many slaves worked their way North restoring British rule.
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